Trial of Early Minimally Invasive Removal of Intracerebral Hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Trials of surgical evacuation of supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhages have generally shown no functional benefit. Whether early minimally invasive surgical removal would result in better outcomes than medical management is not known. METHODS: In this multicenter, randomized trial involving patients with an acute intracerebral hemorrhage, we assessed surgical removal of the hematoma as compared with medical management. Patients who had a lobar or anterior basal ganglia hemorrhage with a hematoma volume of 30 to 80 ml were assigned, in a 1:1 ratio, within 24 hours after the time that they were last known to be well, to minimally invasive surgical removal of the hematoma plus guideline-based medical management (surgery group) or to guideline-based medical management alone (control group). The primary efficacy end point was the mean score on the utility-weighted modified Rankin scale (range, 0 to 1, with higher scores indicating better outcomes, according to patients' assessment) at 180 days, with a prespecified threshold for posterior probability of superiority of 0.975 or higher. The trial included rules for adaptation of enrollment criteria on the basis of hemorrhage location. A primary safety end point was death within 30 days after enrollment. RESULTS: A total of 300 patients were enrolled, of whom 30.7% had anterior basal ganglia hemorrhages and 69.3% had lobar hemorrhages. After 175 patients had been enrolled, an adaptation rule was triggered, and only persons with lobar hemorrhages were enrolled. The mean score on the utility-weighted modified Rankin scale at 180 days was 0.458 in the surgery group and 0.374 in the control group (difference, 0.084; 95% Bayesian credible interval, 0.005 to 0.163; posterior probability of superiority of surgery, 0.981). The mean between-group difference was 0.127 (95% Bayesian credible interval, 0.035 to 0.219) among patients with lobar hemorrhages and -0.013 (95% Bayesian credible interval, -0.147 to 0.116) among those with anterior basal ganglia hemorrhages. The percentage of patients who had died by 30 days was 9.3% in the surgery group and 18.0% in the control group. Five patients (3.3%) in the surgery group had postoperative rebleeding and neurologic deterioration. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients in whom surgery could be performed within 24 hours after an acute intracerebral hemorrhage, minimally invasive hematoma evacuation resulted in better functional outcomes at 180 days than those with guideline-based medical management. The effect of surgery appeared to be attributable to intervention for lobar hemorrhages. (Funded by Nico; ENRICH ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02880878.).

Spontaneous Simultaneous Bilateral Basal Ganglia Hemorrhage (SSBBGH): Systematic Review and Data Analysis on Epidemiology, Clinical Feature, Location of Bleeding, Etiology, Therapeutic Intervention and Outcome.

Background: Spontaneous simultaneous bilateral basal ganglia hemorrhage (SSBBGH) is an extremely rare condition with only a few published case reports and series. However, there is no systematic review that has been published yet. Objective: The study aims to conduct a systematic review on spontaneous simultaneous bilateral basal ganglion bleeding and a descriptive statistical analysis of collected data on epidemiology, clinical features, etiology, therapeutic approach and prognosis. This review aims to be a clinical reference for busy clinicians when they are faced with such a rare condition. Methodology: This review has been carried out in accordance with recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Results: Review of 60 cases showed that SSBBGH affected predominantly male patients (70%) with an average age of 50.8 ± 15.33 years and the male-to-female ratio was 2.5:1. The female patients tend to be older with an average age of 54.22 ± 16.67 years. Location of SSBBGHwas more common in the putamen (90% vs 10% non-putaminal). SSBBGH posed a significant mortality rate (33.33%). Among patients who survived, only 40.6% (13/32 report) have had favorable outcomes (mRS ≤2) and the remaining 59.4% (19/32) ended up with poor functional status (mRS ≥3-5). The most common implicated etiologies were hypertension followed by alcohol intoxication. Conclusion: SSBBGH is a rare clinical entity with significant morbidity and mortality. Systemic approach can lead to early recognition of etiology and prompt treatment. Hypertension and the putamen are the most common etiology and location of SSBBGH, respectively. History of hypertension and age can help narrow differential diagnosis and limit unnecessary testing or intervention.

Computed Tomography-Guided Catheter Aspiration and Thrombolysis of Hypertensive Basal Ganglionic Hematomas: Technique and Short-Term Outcome Comparison.

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive techniques of hematoma evacuation with or without the use of thrombolytic agents to lyse the clots have shown promising outcomes compared to open surgical evacuation. However, there is a dearth of literature in developing nations. The objective in this study was to evacuate spontaneous hypertensive basal ganglionic hemorrhages using computed tomography (CT)-guided catheter insertion, hematoma aspiration, and lysis with thrombolytic agents and analyze the efficacy and outcomes. METHODS: Ten patients with spontaneous basal ganglionic hemorrhage underwent CT-guided clot catheter insertion, followed by aspiration of hematoma and clot lysis using 25,000 IU urokinase instilled every 12 hours. Details including symptoms, clinical and radiologic findings, efficacy of the technique, functional outcomes during follow-up, length of stay, and cost were recorded. Relevant details for 12 age- and sex-matched conservatively treated patients were compared. RESULTS: Functional outcome in the catheter group at 6 months was better than the medically managed group, with improved mean Glasgow Outcome Scale score (0.4 vs. 0.08), reduced modified Rankin scale score (-0.8 vs. -0.25), and reduced National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score (-6.8 vs. -1.5 points). However, it was not statistically significant. Average hematoma volume reduction in the catheter group was 83.14%. In the medically managed group, 2 of 12 patients (16.6%) had hematoma expansion, 6 patients (50%) developed hydrocephalus, and 2 patients (16.6%) died. In the catheter group, 4 of 10 patients (40%) developed mild pneumocephalus that resolved. CONCLUSIONS: The evacuation of hypertensive basal ganglionic hematomas is feasible with basic neurosurgical instruments and existing resources (e.g., CT scan) with improved functional outcome compared with conservative treatment alone.

Comparison of the curative effect and prognosis of stereotactic drainage and conservative treatment for moderate and small basal ganglia haemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive surgery has achieved good results in the treatment of cerebral haemorrhage.However, no large-scale clinical study has demonstrated that surgical treatment of cerebral haemorrhages less than 30 ml can improve the curative effect. Our study explored the efficacy and complication of stereotactic drainage based on the amount of cerebral hemorrhage (15-30 ml) in hypertensive basal ganglia. METHOD: Sixty patients with hypertensive basal ganglia haemorrhages were divided into a control group and an experimental group with 30 patients in each group. Patients in the control group were treated conservatively. In contrast, those in the experimental group received stereotactic drainage, and urokinase was injected into the haematoma cavity after the operation. The haematoma volume at admission and 1, 3, 7 and 30 days after treatment and National Institute of Health stroke scale(NIHSS) score data were recorded. Complications after treatment in the two groups of data were compared and analysed. RESULT: No significant differences in age, sex, time of treatment after onset, admission blood pressure, admission haematoma volume or admission NIHSS score were noted between these two groups (P > 0.05). After treatment, significant differences in haematoma volume were noted between the two groups on the 1st, 3rd, 7th and 30th days after treatment (P < 0.05). The amount of hematoma of patients in the experimental group was significantly reduced compared with that in the control group, and the NIHSS scores were significantly different on the 3rd, 7th and 30th days after treatment. The neurological deficit scores of patients in the experimental group were significantly reduced compared with those in the control group, and the incidence of pulmonary infection and venous thrombosis in the lower limbs of patients in the experimental group were significantly reduced (P < 0.05). ROC curve analysis showed that stereotactic drainage affected the early neurological function of patients with small and medium basal ganglia haemorrhages. CONCLUSION: For patients with small and medium basal ganglia haemorrhages, stereotactic drainage can be used due to the faster drainage speed of haematomas after operation, which is beneficial to the recovery of neurological function and reduce complications.

Minimally invasive endoscopic hematoma evacuation vs best medical management for spontaneous basal-ganglia intracerebral hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a case-control study to assess the relative safety and efficacy of minimally invasive endoscopic surgery (MIS) for clot evacuation in patients with basal-ganglia intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). METHODS: We evaluated consecutive patients with acute basal-ganglia ICH at a single center over a 42-month period. Patients received either best medical management according to established guidelines (controls) or MIS (cases). The following outcomes were compared before and after propensity-score matching (PSM): in-hospital mortality; discharge National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score; discharge disposition; and modified Rankin Scale scores at discharge and at 3 months. RESULTS: Among 224 ICH patients, 19 (8.5%) underwent MIS (mean age, 50.9±10.9; 26.3% female, median ICH volume, 40 (IQR, 25-51)). The interventional cohort was younger with higher ICH volume and stroke severity compared with the medically managed cohort. After PSM, 18 MIS patients were matched to 54 medically managed individuals. The two cohorts did not differ in any of the baseline characteristics. The median ICH volume at 24 hours was lower in the intervention group (40 cm3 (IQR, 25-50) vs 15 cm3 (IQR, 5-20); P<0.001). The two cohorts did not differ in any of the pre-specified outcomes measures except for in-hospital mortality, which was lower in the interventional cohort (28% vs 56%; P=0.041). CONCLUSIONS: Minimally invasive endoscopic hematoma evacuation was associated with lower rates of in-hospital mortality in patients with spontaneous basal-ganglia ICH. These findings support a randomized controlled trial of MIS versus medical management for ICH.

Trans-venous embolization of a basal ganglia ruptured arteriovenous malformation with open surgical arterial control: A hybrid technique.

Treatment of ruptured deep-seated arteriovenous malformations is challenging and associated with elevated risks. This is due to the proximity or involvement of critical brain structures and the specifically fine and delicate angioarchitecture of these lesions, making both endovascular and surgical access technically complicated. We present the advantages of a true combined, open surgical and endovascular transvenous approach in a hybrid operating room. The technique may overcome in part the difficulties and may improve safety and risk related concerns.

Natural History of Intracranial Absorbable Gelatin Powder.

This case report documents the natural history of intracranial absorbable gelatin powder. We depict the serial imaging of Surgifoam in the cavity of an intracranial hemorrhage cavity after surgical evacuation.

Large Amount of Cannabis Ingestion Resulting in Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Case Report.

Although multiple cases of cannabis-associated ischemic stroke have been reported, there are only 2 reported cases of hemorrhagic stroke with an associated cerebral vasoconstriction. To our knowledge, we present the first case of basal ganglia hemorrhage after a large-volume oral ingestion of cannabis without other identified risk factors. In our case, cerebral digital subtraction angiography within 24 hours of presentation did not reveal vasoconstriction leading to a possible alternative explanation for hemorrhagic stroke, including cannabis-induced transient arterial hypertension and autoregulation disruption.

Color-coded digital subtraction angiography in the management of a rare case of middle cerebral artery pure arterial malformation. A technical and case report.

The advent of flow dynamics and the recent availability of perfusion analysis software have provided new diagnostic tools and management possibilities for cerebrovascular patients. To this end, we provide an example of the use of color-coded angiography and its application in a rare case of a patient with a pure middle cerebral artery (MCA) malformation. A 42-year-old male chronic smoker was evaluated in the emergency room due to sudden onset of severe headache, nausea, vomiting and left-sided weakness. Head computed tomography revealed a right basal ganglia hemorrhage. Cerebral digital subtraction angiography (DSA) showed a right middle cerebral artery malformation consisting of convoluted and ectatic collateral vessels supplying the distal middle cerebral artery territory-M1 proximally occluded. An associated medial lenticulostriate artery aneurysm was found. Brain single-photon emission computed tomography with and without acetazolamide failed to show problems in vascular reserve that would indicate the need for flow augmentation. Twelve months after discharge, the patient recovered from the left-sided weakness and did not present any similar events. A follow-up DSA and perfusion study using color-coded perfusion analysis showed perforator aneurysm resolution and adequate, albeit delayed perfusion in the involved vascular territory. We propose a combined congenital and acquired mechanism involving M1 occlusion with secondary dysplastic changes in collateral supply to the distal MCA territory. Angiographic and cerebral perfusion work-up was used to exclude the need for flow augmentation. Nevertheless, the natural course of this lesion remains unclear and long-term follow-up is warranted.

Traumatic basal ganglia hematomas: an analysis of 20 cases.

Twenty patients with traumatic basal ganglia hematoma (TBGH) were studied. Of the 20 patients, 16 were male and 4 were female, with an age range of 4-89 years (mean, 54.4 years). The causes of injury were traffic accidents in 12 patients and falls in 8. The mean admission GCS score was 7.5. Skull fractures were revealed in five patients (25 %). The hematoma was found in the putamen in 15 patients (80 %), the thalamus in 4, and the caudate in 1. The mean hematoma volume was 10.7 mL. The CT findings indicated focal contusions in 9 patients, subdural hematoma in 5, intraventricular hemorrhage in 4, subarachnoid hemorrhage in 10, and diffuse axonal injury in 5. Six patients (30 %) underwent surgery. The final outcomes were poor: 7 patients (35 %) died, 1 was in a vegetative state, 4 experienced severe disabilities, and 8 patients (40 %) made a favorable recovery. The statistical analysis identified the GCS score and midline shift as prognostic factors.Our study revealed interesting characteristics of TBGH, including a high frequency of putaminal involvement, a low frequency of skull fractures, a high frequency of associated intracranial lesions, and a high poor outcome and mortality rate.

Isolated basal ganglia hemorrhage due to blast injury.

Bilateral traumatic hemorrhage of the basal ganglia is an extremely rare neuropathologic entity. Bilateral basal ganglia hemorrhage secondary to blast injury has not described before. We report a case with bilateral basal ganglia hemorrhage secondary to explosion.

Comparison of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage treatment in Germany between 1999 and 2009: results of a survey.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The aim of our study was to examine surgical practice in the therapy of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in Germany over a period of 10 years. METHODS: In 1999 and 2009 a questionnaire with 10 different cases of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage was sent to all neurosurgical centers in Germany. It included a cranial CT as well as a case description. The question asked if a conservative or surgical procedure was most suitable. When choosing surgery, the participants could decide between large open approach or microsurgery as well as stereotactic aspiration or external ventricular drainage. RESULTS: In 1999, 85 of 121 (70%) and in 2009 111 of 125 (89%) questionnaires could be evaluated. The results of the questionnaires from 1999 and 2009 showed no difference in the decision for or against a surgical procedure, except for a move toward conservative treatment in 1 patient with a massive spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. In 2 cases of isolated basal ganglia bleeding, a conservative approach was chosen by approximately 98% of the participants both in 1999 and in 2009. In all other cases of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage, in particular when the patient was in poor clinical condition, the decision was very heterogeneous. CONCLUSIONS: Despite new studies, there were no significant differences regarding the decision for or against a surgical procedure in 1999 and 2009. Although clearly unfavorable prognostic factors are known, many patients still undergo a surgical procedure. It appears that at least spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in the area of the basal ganglia is a unique domain of conservative treatment.

Comparison on different strategies for treatments of hypertensive hemorrhage in the basal ganglia region with a volume of 25 to 35 ml.

PURPOSE: To compare curative effect of different treatments for hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage of 25 to 35 ml. METHODS: In this study, 595 cases were enrolled and grouped regarding treatments including conservative treatment, evacuation with microinvasive craniopuncture technique within 6h and 6-48 h after the attack. RESULTS: After follow up for three months after the attack, the assessment based on the Activity of Daily Living (ADL) indicated no significant difference among conservative treatment and surgical interventions (p>0.05). However, surgical interventions showed advantages of shorter hospitalization, quick removal of hematoma and obvious reduction of cost. CONCLUSION: The microinvasive craniopuncture technique to drain the hematoma within 6-48 h may be a good way in treating hypertensive hemorrhage of basal ganglia region.

Comparison on different strategies for treatments of hypertensive hemorrhage in the basal ganglia region with a volume of 25 to 35ml / Comparação de diferentes estratégias no tratamento da hemorragia hipertensiva da região dos gânglios da base com volume de 25 a 35ml

PURPOSE: To compare curative effect of different treatments for hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage of 25 to 35ml. METHODS: In this study, 595 cases were enrolled and grouped regarding treatments including conservative treatment, evacuation with microinvasive craniopuncture technique within 6h and 6-48h after the attack. RESULTS: After follow up for three months after the attack, the assessment based on the Activity of Daily Living (ADL) indicated no significant difference among conservative treatment and surgical interventions (p>0.05). However, surgical interventions showed advantages of shorter hospitalization, quick removal of hematoma and obvious reduction of cost. CONCLUSION: The microinvasive craniopuncture technique to drain the hematoma within 6-48h may be a good way in treating hypertensive hemorrhage of basal ganglia region.

OBJETIVO: Comparar o efeito curativo de diferentes tratamentos da hemorragia hipertensiva cerebral de 25 a 35ml. MÉTODOS: Foram analisados 595 casos agrupados segundo tratamento conservador e evacuação com técnica de punção transcraniana dentro de 6h ou de 6 às 48h do início do quadro clínico. RESULTADOS: O seguimento após três meses e avaliado pelo Escore de Atividade de Vida Diário, indicou que não houve diferenças significantes entre os tratamentos conservador e cirúrgico (p>0.05) O tratamento cirúrgico mostrou vantagem com hospitalização mais curta e redução de custos. CONCLUSÃO: A técnica de punção transcraniana para drenagem de hematoma dos núcleos da base pode ser uma boa alternativa de tratamento.

Endoscopic surgery versus conservative treatment for the moderate-volume hematoma in spontaneous basal ganglia hemorrhage (ECMOH): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a disease with high morbidity, high disability rate, high mortality, and high economic burden. Whether patients can benefit from surgical evacuation of hematomas is still controversial, especially for those with moderate-volume hematomas in the basal ganglia. This study is designed to compare the efficacy of endoscopic surgery and conservative treatment for the moderate-volume hematoma in spontaneous basal ganglia hemorrhage. METHODS: Patients meet the criteria will be randomized into the endoscopic surgery group (endoscopic surgery for hematoma evacuation and the best medical treatment) or the conservative treatment group (the best medical treatment). Patients will be followed up at 1, 3, and 6 months after initial treatment. The primary outcomes include the Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale and the Modified Rankin Scale. The secondary outcomes consist of the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale and the mortality. The Barthel Index(BI) will also be evaluated. The sample size is 100 patients. DISCUSSION: The ECMOH trial is a randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate if endoscopic surgery is better than conservative treatment for patients with moderate-volume hematomas in the basal ganglia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Chinese Clinical Trial Registry: ChiCTR-TRC-11001614(http://www.chictr.org/en/proj/show.aspx?proj=1618).

Vascular imaging adds value in investigation of basal ganglia hemorrhage.

The risk of basal ganglia hemorrhage (BGH) increases in patients of older age and with hypertension. Current guidelines do not recommend routine vascular imaging. However, a proportion of patients with BGH have underlying vascular abnormalities, and these patients may require a different treatment approach. We aimed to assess the proportion of underlying vascular abnormalities in patients with BGH. In this retrospective study, we included all patients who presented with BGH between January 2007 and December 2009 at a single institution. The following data were collected: patient demographics, vascular risk factors, medications, volume of hematoma, CT scans, CT angiogram, magnetic resonance angiography and digital subtraction angiography. We determined the proportion of underlying vascular abnormalities and correlated these findings with risk factors for BGH. A total of 113 consecutive patients with BGH were identified, and vascular imaging was performed in 61. The median age was 62 years and 48 (78.7%) of these patients were male. Forty-two (68.9%) of 61 patients had hypertension. Positive vascular imaging findings were identified in eight of 61 patients (13.1%): three intracranial aneurysms, three cavernous malformations, one Moyamoya disease and one arteriovenous malformation. There were no significant associations between demographic features, vascular risk factors and the hematoma volume between patients with positive and negative vascular imaging. Specifically, an underlying vascular abnormality was not associated with age (≥ 60 years, 6/36 patients had an underlying vascular abnormality, compared with 2/25 patients< 60 years; p=not significant [n.s.]). There was no relationship with hypertension (5/42 hypertensive patients and 3/19 normotensive patients (n.s.) had an underlying vascular abnormality). We concluded that there is a significant proportion of relevant underlying vascular abnormalities in patients with BGH. This likelihood is not predicted by risk factors such as hypertension and age. These findings indicate the importance of vascular imaging in patients with BGH who are not neurologically devastated.

Factors influencing therapeutic strategy for patients with basal ganglia hemorrhage--could age play a potential role in final treatment decision?

BACKGROUND: Hypertension-associated intracerebral hemorrhage, when compared with cerebral infarction and subarachnoid hemorrhage, is associated with worse clinical outcomes or major disability. Worse clinical outcomes have been observed in the elderly population though age as a factor influencing physicians' final treatment decision is not well determined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We studied 199 patients diagnosed with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICD code: ICD-9-CM-431) who visited a tertiary medical center from January 2003 to March 2006. Baseline characteristics, major medical histories (including co-morbidities), vital signs, neurological assessment (evaluated by the Glasgow Coma Scale), location of the hemorrhage, and the amount of hemorrhaging were all included as variables. A multivariate logistic regression model was chosen to evaluate the significant independent factors that could influence the physician's choice of treatment approach. RESULTS: There were totally 110 patients meeting the inclusion criteria for enrollment. We observed that worse neurological function on-arrival (chi2 = 8.57, p = .01) and larger amount of bleeding (chi2 = 9.29, p = .01) were more likely to receive surgery. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that age, neurological function on-arrival, and the amount of hemorrhage were significant independent factors influencing the physicians' treatment decision (all p < .05). CONCLUSION: Age, after adjustment for clinical variables representative of clinical severity, was an important factor in the final therapeutic decision. Our data suggest that a comprehensive evaluation of the patients' on-arrival status may be made and that advanced age should not be a determining factor in the choice of final treatment methods.

Time course of plasma leptin concentrations after acute spontaneous basal ganglia hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Brain cortex leptin messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression and serum leptin level are up-regulated in ischemic mouse brain, as well as in rat brain with traumatic brain injury. Elevated leptin plasma levels predict cerebral hemorrhagic stroke independently of traditional risk factors. The goal of this study was to investigate change in plasma leptin level after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and to evaluate its relation with disease outcome. METHODS: Eighty-six patients admitted within 6 hrs after ICH and 30 healthy controls were included. Plasma samples were obtained on admission and at days 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 after ICH. Its concentration was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: After ICH, plasma leptin level in patients increased during the 6-hour period immediately, peaked in 24 hours, decreased gradually thereafter, and was substantially higher than that in healthy controls during the 7-day period. Plasma leptin levels were highly associated with initial Glasgow coma scores, ICH volumes, presence of intraventricular hemorrhage, and survival rates (all P < 0.05). A multivariate analysis selected plasma leptin level related to plasma C-reactive protein level (standardized coefficient, 0.293; P = 0.003). A multivariate analysis showed baseline plasma leptin level as a good predictor for 1-week mortality (odds ratio, 1.228; 95% confidence interval, 1.070-1.409; P = 0.003). A receiver operating characteristic curve identified that a baseline plasma leptin level greater than 34.1 ng/mL predicted 1-week mortality of patients with 75.0% sensitivity and 85.2% specificity (P < 0.001). Area under curve of GCS score was statistically significantly larger than that of plasma leptin level (P = 0.035), but ICH volume's area under curve not (P = 0.078). CONCLUSIONS: Increased plasma leptin level is found after ICH and may contribute to inflammatory process of ICH, in association with a poor clinical outcome.

[Cerebral lesions in acute arterial hypertension: the characteristic MRI in hypertensive encephalopathy]. / Zerebrale Veränderungen bei krisenhafter arterieller Hypertonie: MRT-Befunde der hypertensiven Enzephalopathie sind wegweisend für Diagnose und Therapie.

PURPOSE: In the nine years since the posterior reversible (leuc) encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) was first described, a number of causes have been under discussion. These not only include arterial hypertension, i. e. hypertensive crises, but also various toxic substances, i. e. immunosuppressive or chemotherapeutic agents, that are responsible for the formation of the symptoms and characteristic MR tomographic brain findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Initial and follow-up MRI examinations of 8 patients were analyzed. All patients had acute neurological symptoms (headaches, seizures, visual disorders and vigilance disturbances) together with a detectable hypertensive crisis. RESULTS: MRI disclosed increased signal intensity in subcortical and some cortical lesions in all patient FLAIR sequences. These changes were particularly extensive in the posterior circulation (occipital, cerebellum and brain stem) although they were also detected in brain areas supplied by the carotid artery. However, a cytotoxic genesis of the changes was ruled out in each patient by means of a normal DWI. Furthermore, when the blood pressure was normalized, reversibility of the lesions as proof of the diagnosis was detectable. CONCLUSION: The imaging findings can be typically analyzed as a predominantly posterior distribution of encephalopathic lesions with a high probability of reversibility after lowering blood pressure was patients suffering from a critical increase in blood pressure with corresponding neurological symptoms. The exact pathophysiology remains unclear, but the cause currently most favored is a vasculopathy of the posterior circulation due to diminished adrenergic autoregulation in combination with a dysfunction of the endothelial cells. In conclusion, we suggest designating this subpopulation from the non-uniform pool of patients with posterior (leuc) encephalopathy as "hypertensive encephalopathy". "Hypertensive encephalopathy" has to be distinguished from "toxic encephalopathy", particularly due to different therapeutic and prognostic consequences.